Japanese firms operating in both their home countries and emerging economies. About the cost structure, costs depending on … quantity and quality(named gproduction costs h) and those depending only on quality (named gR&D costs h) are discussed. With … production and R&D costs, three types of costs are examined. Type 1 costs have no R&D costs. Type 2 costs have both, and R …

negative impacts. One specific negative impact is the higher municipal direct monetary costs associated with it, when compared … with other types of urban growth, e.g. compact city (1). Municipal monetary costs are related with the construction … costs are, directly and indirectly, supported by the municipal government (2). The association between sprawl and higher …