voting when an incumbent president runs for re-election, and engage in prospective voting when he does not run. In the 2008 … American presidential election, however, voters cast their vote to Obama as a punishment to Bush administration even though the … President Bush didn't run for re-election. Previous researches also argue that if voters are disappointed with economic …

spending in each election or in per capita terms, greater spending facilitates voting. We conclude, contrary to conventional … legitimacy conferring institution in democracy. Rather than alienating voters, expensive campaigns should strengthen the critical …