"Among developing member countries (DMCs), Indonesia and the Philippines rank fairly high in the distribution of real … GDP per capita in PPP dollars while Bangladesh ranks much lower. In terms of aggregate schooling, the Philippines has … secondary and tertiary enrollment rates that are substantially higher, while Indonesia has rates that are substantially lower …

"While decentralization of education in DMCs has largely been driven by fiscal constraints, it has also been motivated … higher education. To varying degrees, DMCs have adopted some elements of decentralization in their education systems. These … schools, decentralization of school functions, and reforms to the incentive structure of schools and their teachers. However …