Manufacturers often offer trade promotions such as markdown allowances as incentives to retailers. These savings, if passed onto consumers in the form of lower retail prices, can stimulate consumer purchases and thus enhance the manufacturers' profits. Retailers, however, may not pass savings...

"Under the assumption of no unmeasured confounders, a large literature exists on methods that can be used to estimating average treatment effects (ATE) from observational data and that spans regression models, propensity score adjustments using stratification, weighting or regression and even...