We study the evolution of racial educational inequality across US states from 1940 to 2000. We show that throughout this period, despite evidence of convergence, the racial gap in attainment between blacks and whites has been persistently determined by the initial gap. We obtain these results...

The slave trades out of Africa represent one of the most significant forced migration experiences in history. In this paper I illustrate their long-term consequences. I first consider the influence of the slave trade on the "sending" countries in Africa, with attention to their economic,...

Soul drivers, market makers -- "The most notorious of the Baltimore Negro-buyers" -- Sweet dreams and smuggling schemes -- Bank bonds and bondspersons -- "The slave-factory of Franklin & Armfield" -- Chains of violence -- Machines of empire -- Conclusion