In a recent article, with a strong theoretical argument but poor empirical support, military spending was identified to be a determinant of real exchange rate or a factor causing the PPP to deviate from equilibrium exchange rate. The poor empirical results were mostly due to a small number of...

The autoregressive distributed lag model (ARDL), even though it distinguishes between the short run and the long run effect, allows both the intercepts and slopes to vary across countries. Static panel estimations, such as fixed-effects estimation (FE), cannot distinguish between the short run...

In addressing the issue of short-run heterogeneity as well as long-run homogeneity of the estimated coefficients in a panel framework, the Pooled Mean Group (PMG) estimator (Pesaran et al., 1999) has gained popularity in applied research in economics and business recently. This estimation method...