children and adults living in poverty. Our research design exploits the county roll-out of US family planning programs in the … late 1960s and early 1970s and examines their relationship with poverty rates in the short and longer-term in public census … data. We find that cohorts born after federal family planning programs began were less likely to live in poverty in …

is absent for children of preschool age. We also find that (1) boys are more likely to migrate following the reduction in … the number of rural primary schools, (2) migrant households with multiple children tend to take their sons to migrate more … than they take their daughters, and (3) the fact that parents of boy students spend more on their children's education can …