Most aliens who seek legal residence in the European Union and find their request to stay denied do not anxiously await a return to their home country. Given the high level of welfare and social services in most of the countries in the European Union, the return is generally experienced as an...

What are the conditions under which private, voluntary certification programs like the Rainforest Alliance or Fairtrade can successfully promote environmental and social standards? We propose that the efficacy of a certification program depends on three variables: its sustainability standards,...