Wartime violence takes several forms. Past research studied the causes and consequences of violence, but no previous work simultaneously assessed the long-term effects of different types of violence on political identities. I argue that while indiscriminate attacks should reinforce ingroup...

This paper reviews how the Spanish civil war was financed. We present new evidence to show that the two combatant parties, the Republican government and the Franco administration followed similar financial strategies. In both cases money creation, rather than new taxes or the issue of debt, was...

Recent research on violence against civilians during wars has emphasized war-related factors over political ones. For example, factors such as control of territory or characteristics of the armed groups have been prioritized at the expense of factors such as ideological alignments or local...