The term pseudocontingency (PC) denotes the logically unwarranted inference of a contingency between two variables X and Y from information other than pairs of xi, yi observations, namely, the variables’ univariate baserates as assessed in one or more ecological contexts. We summarize recent...

Respondents use different ways to respond to rating scale items. Hence, item responses do not only capture the trait to be measured, but also the way respondents react to rating scales. So-called response styles have been incorporated in a variety of psychometric modeling approaches and...