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Martyrdom operations as a means to achieve political ends gained currency in the Middle East since the 1980s. Violent extremist groups justified such operations with the theological idea of sacrifice for the cause of the ummah. The article argues that it was Khomeini who first promoted the idea...
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Thus far, researchers working on ethnicity and resources as determinants of civil conflict have operated largely … independently of each other. While there is plenty of evidence that natural resources may spur armed conflict, empirical evidence … for the nexus between ethnic fractionalization and conflict remains inconclusive. Some authors conclude that ethnically …
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more prolonged and more devastating civil wars. Third, we identify sizeable spillovers; civil conflict spreads from the …
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