Basic causality is that a cause is present or absent and that the effect follows with a success or not. This happy … Confounding and values {S, -S}, {C, -C}, {F, -F}. Assuming the truth we can find the impact of the cause from when the confounder … conditional independence. The paper gives a taxonomy of issues of confounding, a parameterization by risk or safety, and develops …

stochastic nature of the dynamics, even when agglomeration occurs, it is only a metastable state. By giving time and firms … heterogeneity a role, we are bringing the evolutionary approach inside the domain of economic geography. …