Fossil fuels have shaped the European economy since the industrial revolution. In this paper, we analyse the effect of coal and oil on long-run economic growth, exploiting variation at the level of European NUTS-2 and NUTS-3 regions over the last century. We show that an "oil invasion" in the...

State & entrepreneurs: theory and development -- State policies: the Great Pasha's dynasty (1805-1952) -- State policies: the military (1952-2014) -- From hibernation to globalization -- Quo vadis Egypt