Investment is no longer a matter of individual savers directly choosing which shares or bonds to buy. Rather, most of their money flows through a 'chain': an often extended sequence of intermediaries. What goes on in that chain is of huge importance: The world's investment managers, who are now...

This paper analyses the development of carbon markets: markets in permits to emit greenhouse gases or in credits earned by not emitting them. It describes briefly how such markets have come into being, and discusses in more detail two aspects of the efforts to 'make things the same' in carbon...

Formal verification is the attempt to give a mathematical proof that the design of a computer system is a correct implementation of its specification. This effort raises questions about what ‘proof’ is. Two main conceptions — formal proof and rigorous argument — are identified, and it is...