This paper discusses the channels between openness and productivity and trade hampering factors. The stylized facts from the heterogeneous firms literature suggests that firms face market entry costs for each new product they export and to each new export market. Transport costs, border costs...

The last four decades, Dutch exports and imports grew annually about 7.5%, while re-exports rocketed in the last two decades. Using a gravity approach this paper finds that the increase in trade is largely caused by income developments. Trade policy, consisting of reductions in import tariffs...

We explore the relationship between openness and growth by taking a closer look at trade-related knowledge spillovers at the industry level. First, we estimate the relation between sectoral R&D expenditures, trade-related spillovers, and growth. Next, we incorporate these R&D linkages in a...