In the 2002 election, candidates for Pakistan’s federal legislature had to possess at least a bachelor’s degree. This … policy disqualified 60 out of the 207 incumbent legislators from running for election again. Using a difference …-in-differences approach with panel data on all electoral constituencies in Pakistan, I find that this ballot access restriction does not …

competition. As existing research conceptualizes political competition mainly as a macro- or party-level phenomenon, the micro … perspective remains underdeveloped and, therefore, an important dimension of political competition, the availability of votes, is … ignored. We introduce and discuss an individualized measure of electoral competition that is based on propensities to vote as …

competition in primary elections in the strong party. As opposed to this, experienced candidates and candidates with a good … identity match run relatively more frequently in primary elections in the weak party as competition increases. The effects of …How does competition affect the entry and selection of politicians? I use data on U.S. Congressional primary and …