This paper explores the likely prevalence of hardship in old age for individuals now nearing retirement. We use two decades of longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study to determine what observable demographic, socioeconomic, and financial factors in late middle age predicted...

We conduct an experiment to examine the separate and interactive effects of individuals' risk preferences and two commonly-used performance measures – return on investment (ROI) and residual income (RI) – on risk-taking in capital investment decisions. We predict and find that the use of ROI...