This paper proposes a test of racial bias in capital sentencing based upon patterns of judicial errors in lower courts … that of letting a guilty defendant free. We define racial bias as a situation where the relative weight on the two types of … between 1973 and 1995. We find robust evidence of bias against minority defendants who killed white victims: in Direct Appeal …

reductions among first offenders primarily reflect outcomes for offenders who live in lower-crime areas of the city and are not … lasting reductions in recidivism among first offenders but not repeat offenders. We present suggestive evidence that these … inmates under their supervision. These powers place former inmates at significant risk of returning to prison as punishment …

reductions among first offenders primarily reflect outcomes for offenders who live in lower-crime areas of the city and are not … lasting reductions in recidivism among first offenders but not repeat offenders. We present suggestive evidence that these … inmates under their supervision. These powers place former inmates at significant risk of returning to prison as punishment …

record, on the future criminal and labor market outcomes of first-time felony drug offenders. To accomplish this, we exploit …

recidivism among first offenders. Yet, among repeat offenders, incarceration sentences for marginal offenders create only modest … sentences for many offenders with prior criminal records …

, incarceration creates large and lasting reductions in recidivism among first offenders. Yet, among marginal repeat offenders … first offenders while encouraging or mandating incarceration sentences for many repeat offenders. We show that methods that … fail to estimate separate outcome equations for first versus repeat offenders or fail to model judge-specific sentencing …