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We find that IPO firms engage in real and accrual earnings management during the IPO and that big-N audit firms … constrain discretionary expenses-based and accrual-based manipulations. The restriction of these forms of earnings management … leads IPO firms to resort to a higher level of sales-based manipulation. Our results show that both sales-based and accrual …
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factors could be observed on the value of discretionary accrual. …
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