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In the eighth century, Charles Martel confiscated Church property to make distributions of benefices and precaria to his vassals. This project was an investment in state capacity and secularizations of Church property were continued under Charles' son Pippin III. Many scholars have characterized...
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between Africa and Western Europe became so divergent when in the early medieval period average income levels and economic …
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The thirteenth century was an era of bold constitutional experiments in Europe. During this age, for the first time in …
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Europe. Scholars have argued that this balance of power contributed to a tradition of limited government and constitutional …
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