), likely contributes to the rise and persistence of mass incarceration in the United States. The article relies on varied … converging sources of data. First, the article examines international data, comparing degrees of PDD to incarceration rates in a … incarceration rates. Third, the article examines intrastate data, concluding that city councils in racially-diverse localities have …

trend in minor crime adjudication. First, there are social-welfare losses resulting from lost wages and income tax revenues …, the increased costs of new prosecutions and jail sentences imposed when costs, fees, and other economic sanctions are not …

data from male rural-urban migrants prison inmates and comparable non-inmates to examine whether parental absence in …

. Longer prison sentences further isolate offenders from the legitimate labor force and may promote the formation of criminal … networks in prison. On the other hand, greater initial punishment may have a deterrence effect on the individual being punished …, sometimes called “specific deterrence,” through learning or the rehabilitative effect of prison. We test the effect of prison …