For central banks, it is crucial to develop and maintain risk identification frameworks that allow them to detect in good time and address potential threats to financial stability with the most appropriate policy tools. This paper reviews the main indicators developed for this purpose by the...

Changes in sovereign ratings are strongly asymmetric, as downgrades tend to be deeper and faster than upgrades. In other words, once a country loses its initial status it takes a long time to recover it. Using S&P data, we characterise “rating cycles” in terms of their duration and...

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The residential real estate market has a significant weight in the Spanish economy and its performance is closely linked to that of the financial cycle. In addition, as evidenced by the real estate crisis that began in Spain in 2008, the risks generated in this sector have important implications...