postdoctoral scholars contribute equally to patent activity or whether there is a differential effect depending upon visa status …. We find patent counts relate positively and significantly to the number of faculty, number of PhD students and number of …

. We argue that the patent rule is inferior in any industry where the cost of independently inventing a product is not too … patent holders to license the technology, lowering the market price. Second, a defense of independent invention would reduce … the wasteful duplication of R&D effort that occurs in patent races. In either case, the threat of independent invention …