Looming disasters mostly require collective action but international law is traditionally consent based. For a state to be bound by international law, it needs to have ratified a treaty (e.g. concerning climate change) or must be bound by customary international law. This horizontal form of...

Economic sanctions are a very important topic in the present international relations but also very common headlines in the daily news. At the present time, they become an increasingly prevalent measure for disciplining states’ unacceptable behaviour by a ban on trade and disruption of...

This chapter reviews and synthesizes the work of economists and law and economics scholars in the field of public international law. The bulk of that work has been in the area of international trade, but many of the ideas in the trade literature have implications for other subfields. Recent...

Cyber espionage has become a common method for states to gather confidential information in cyberspace. The vast interconnectedness of the Internet provides a target-rich environment for states to engage in low-risk collection of large amounts of data at an unprecedented speed and scale. Cyber...