interrelated issues of adverse impact and test bias, with particular focus on two forms of test bias especially relevant for …

determining relative performance, optimal bias is i) strictly positive; ii) locally insensitive to changes in the heterogeneity …-to-noise ratio. A close relationship with expected optimal bias under cardinal information helps explain this surprising result …. Properties i) and ii) imply that the simple rule of setting bias as if in the worst-case scenario achieves most of the potential …