Land Scarcity and Urban Density within Cities

This paper studies how limitations on land suitable for development affect within-city variation in urban density and its three components: crowding, residential coverage, and building height. We use the high variation in geographical obstacles − such as steep land slopes and the presence of water bodies within Norwegian cities − as exogenous sources of development limitations. We show that such constraints can create scarcity of certain types of land. Scarcer land types have higher urban density which arises mostly from higher buildings. The effect operates through the heterogeneous citywide supply of land types, rather than through local geography