are consistent with these grades being insufficiently salient for students to alter actual student behaviors …

attainment and political outcomes of German children. We combine a unique city-level dataset on the fraction of Jewish population … children have 0.4 fewer years of schooling on average in adulthood. Second, these children are less likely to go to college or …

large-scale physical destruction on the educational attainment, health status and labor market outcomes of German children … school-age during WWII. First, these children had 0.4 fewer years of schooling on average in adulthood, with those in the … most hard-hit cities completing 1.2 fewer years. Second, these children were about half inches (one centimeter) shorter and …

Without a school degree, students can have difficulty in the labor market. To improve the lives of upper …-secondary school dropouts, German states instituted a school reform that awarded an interim degree to high-track students upon …-track completion, university entrance rates, and later income, arguably by reducing the perceived risk of trying longer in the high …

- on school performance. We combine data from the National Educational Panel Study covering 5348 primary school students …

-- on children's long-term life satisfaction. The historical setting under study, namely the former German Democratic …