are consistent with these grades being insufficiently salient for students to alter actual student behaviors …

Without a school degree, students can have difficulty in the labor market. To improve the lives of upper …-secondary school dropouts, German states instituted a school reform that awarded an interim degree to high-track students upon …-track completion, university entrance rates, and later income, arguably by reducing the perceived risk of trying longer in the high …

benefits from investing in education. The results suggest that the effect of an increase in parental income on educational … attainment is modest. For example, a 25 percent increase in parental income is predicted to increase post-secondary education … (PSE) attendance by one percent only. However, our results indicate that financial resources, other than parental income …

family background is closely related to educational attainment of white children of immigrants in both countries. Moreover … between children of immigrants and children of natives.Results from counterfactual simulations suggest that incentive …

- on school performance. We combine data from the National Educational Panel Study covering 5348 primary school students …

-- on children's long-term life satisfaction. The historical setting under study, namely the former German Democratic …