are consistent with these grades being insufficiently salient for students to alter actual student behaviors …

Without a school degree, students can have difficulty in the labor market. To improve the lives of upper …-secondary school dropouts, German states instituted a school reform that awarded an interim degree to high-track students upon …-track completion, university entrance rates, and later income, arguably by reducing the perceived risk of trying longer in the high …

shares, students' academic skills, and parents' entrepreneurial occupation … effect of private-school competition on students' entrepreneurial intentions. We exploit Catholic-Church resistance to state … instrumental-variable results suggest that a 10 percentage-point higher private-school share raises students' entrepreneurial …

- on school performance. We combine data from the National Educational Panel Study covering 5348 primary school students …

addressing unobserved residence-country features, we find similar results when assigning migrant students their country …

addressing unobserved residence-country features, we find similar results when assigning migrant students their country …

-- on children's long-term life satisfaction. The historical setting under study, namely the former German Democratic …

positive effects of central exams on achievement tests, previous research on university-bound students shows no effects on … subsequent earnings. We suggest that labor-market effects may be more imminent for students leaving school directly for the labor … that central exams are indeed associated with higher earnings for students from school types directly bound for the labor …