are consistent with these grades being insufficiently salient for students to alter actual student behaviors …

track students. However, there are concerns that the most frequently used college placement exams lack validity and … reliability, and unnecessarily place students from under-represented groups into remedial courses. While recent research has shown … that tracking can have positive effects on student learning, inaccurate placement has consequences: students face …

- on school performance. We combine data from the National Educational Panel Study covering 5348 primary school students …