Scientific and technological knowledge is increasingly recognized as a keystone of economic growth and social development. This paper reviews the main components of policy reform strategies designed to increase the efficiency of investments in science and techbology, with specific reference to...

The pharmaceutical industry is unique because of a close connection between knowledge and final product. As the quintessential science-based industry, pharmaceuticals depend heavily on high level manpower and substantial R&D for innovation. Because these requirements are costly, the industry is...

According to Schumpeter, the creative process of economic development can be divided into three distinguishable stages of invention, innovation (commercialization) and imitation. We show why there is a rationale for the Schumpeterian entrepreneur to also include the inventor in the innovation...

The recent 'scientification' of commercial technology has brought the interface between universities and industry into sharp focus. In particular, academic entrepreneurship, i.e., the variety of ways in which academics take direct part in the commercialization of research, is widely discussed....

This study of six industries in eight economies examined the role in building industrial technological capability played by outside sources particularly technology institutions (TIs) such as research and standards organizations and by directed policies such as tax incentives. It concluded that...