exists in the use of alternative political technologies; for instance "bribes by the rich" and "protests by the poor" are … likely to be countervailing forces, and will both occur in polities with weaker political institutions. …

This paper argues that where institutions are strong, actors are more likely to participate in the political process … through institutionalized arenas, while where they are weak, protests and other unconventional means of participation become … political institutions are associated with a higher propensity to use alternative means for expressing preferences, that is, to …

, widespread crime has the potential to weaken trust between citizens and institutions, undermine government reform efforts, and … trust in formal public institutions and trust in informal private networks. It is based on a representative sample of … no robust effect on informal institutions. Governments may henceforth need to redouble efforts to reduce victimization …

objective of the MIDI is to measure the quality of the programs and the institutions that are behind them and assess their …