Already in the early 1980s, city officials realised the challenge of structural change for Bremen. It was at this point that decisions were made to initiate a profound ‘change of direction’ in the economic focus of the city (Warsewa, 2006). In the past, Bremen’s economic fortunes had been...

Europe is a continent of cities with a remarkable history of cultural inspiration, wealth creation, social andpolitical dynamism. But in the late-20th century, many former industrial cities entered a period of steep decline,losing most of their manufacturing jobs and many of their economic...