. Conspicuous characteristics fulfilled many of the functions that patents, trademarks, and brand names do today. The words that … referred to products with conspicuous characteristics served as brand names in the Middle Ages. Data drawn from an array of …

retailer's decision whether to carry an additional national brand or a store brand, and if the retailer chooses to introduce … the latter, where in product space to locate the store brand. Store brands differ from other brands in being both … store brand in a given category. We control for other motivations for carrying a store brand that have been used in the …

and widely taking place in China, it is much less known whether and to what extent privatization has improved resource …

Each of the world's largest retailers---Walmart, Carrefour, Tesco, and Metro---entered China after 1995. Their … subsequent expansion in China may have influenced Chinese exports through two channels. First, they may have enhanced bilateral …

exploring a historical precedent: China's trademark law of 1923---an unanticipated and disapproved response to end foreign … privileges in China. By exploiting a unique, newly digitized firm-employee-level dataset from Shanghai in 1872-1941, we show that … the trademark law shaped firm dynamics on all sides of trademark conflicts. The law spurred growth and brand investment …

In this paper I provide a theory for brand-protection strategies to reduce counterfeiting under weak intellectual …