Researchers studying innovation increasingly use indicators based on patent citations. However, it is well known that not all citations originate from applicants - patent examiners contribute to citations listed in issued patents - and that this could complicate interpretation of findings in...

This paper documents the strong growth in tools used by firms to protect their intellectual property (IP), develop their know-how, and build and maintain their reputation globally during the last decades. We focus on three tools: patents, trademarks, and industrial designs. We find that,...

Although Strategy research aims to understand how firm actions have differential effects on performance, most empirical research estimates the average effects of these actions across firms. This paper promotes Random Coefficients Models (RCMs) as an ideal empirical methodology to study firm...