To choose optimally, people must consider both the potential value and the probability of a desired outcome. This idea is reflected in the expected value theory, which considers both the potential value of different courses of action and the probability that each action will lead to a desired...

Reward prediction error (RPE) reflects the discrepancy between received and predicted outcomes and therefore plays an important role in learning in a dynamic environment. Using electroencephalographic measures of response to obtained and expected outcomes, previous studies have suggested that...