agency model to illustrate how voters' gender bias can lead reelection-seeking female politicians to undertake different … policies to be less effective if decided by women, the model predicts that female politicians undertake less containment effort … than male politicians when voters perceive the threat as low, while the opposite is true when voters perceive it as serious …

Incumbency advantage is a well known phenomenon in developed countries such as the US. Recent work on Brazil and India … disadvantage in Brazil or India. I illustrate this point by estimating the incumbency advantage among Brazilian Mayors …

incumbency advantage among state legislators. Finally, we show that most local politicians are unable to move on the state and …