Firms reliant on supply chains to manufacture their goods risk reputational harm if the working conditions in those factories are revealed to be dangerous, illegal, or otherwise problematic. While firms are increasingly relying on private-sector “social auditors” to assess factory...

Activism seeking to improve labor conditions in global supply chains has led transnational corporations to adopt codes of conduct and monitor suppliers for compliance, but it is unclear whether these formal organizational structures raise labor standards. Drawing on thousands of audits conducted...

In response to stakeholders' growing concerns, firms are joining self-regulatory environmental programs to signal their superior environmental management capabilities. In contrast to the literature's focus on programs featuring third-party certification, we theorize that programs lacking...