Purpose – Today, it is becoming increasingly important for manufacturers to develop cooperative relationships with distributors and obtain customized distribution services. Previous research has suggested that, with specified assets, manufacturers might “hold up” distributors and that such...

Franchisors face a tradeoff between centralization of decision rights and decentralization of decision rights. Regarding the problem, we developed a causal model considering that the relationship between non-contractibility of assets and the allocation of decision rights is not constant, but is...