environment. Using geocoded crime data and a novel source of within-city spatial and temporal variation in punishment severity, I … consistent with police treating enforcement effort and punishment severity as complementary. I also find that citywide crime and … punishment and suggests that certain types enforcement can be reduced without incurring large public safety costs …

The trade-off between the immediate returns from committing a crime and the future costs of punishment depends on an … heterogeneity based on age, education, crime type, and nationality. Our estimates imply that the majority of deterrence is derived …