In this paper we analyze how ratification uncertainty impacts the optimal terms of international environmental … on two-level games of ratification. We find that ratification uncertainty reduces both the strength of the commitment as … agreements (IEAs). We relax the frequent assumption of countries as unitary actors by modeling the ratification stage through …

majority coalition can be stable, provided that reciprocity is sufficiently strong and widespread. In addition, a stable … minority coalition can exist, even with weak reciprocity preferences. This latter coalition is weakly larger than the maximum … stable coalition with standard preferences, but is characterized by mutually negative sentiments. …

International climate negotiations have been troubled by mutual mistrust. At the same time, a hope seems to prevail … on others' abatement. I show that a full or majority coalition can be stable. This requires, however, that a majority of … countries have relatively strong reciprocity preferences. No coalition participation is always stable. In addition, a stable …