Substitution decisions have been examined from a variety of perspectives. The economics literature measures cross-price elasticity, operations research models optimal assortments, the psychology literature studies goals in conflict, and marketing research has examined substitution-in-use, brand...

Numeric ratings for products can be presented using a bigger-is-better format (1=bad, 5=good) or a smaller-is-better format with reversed rating poles (1=good, 5=bad). Seven experiments document how implicit memory for the bigger-is-better format — where larger numbers typically connote...